Analysis of Watergate Essay - 1874 Words

Watergate: Analysis of a Presidential Crisis The term â€Å"Watergate† has become a common household name in correlation with peoples thoughts about corruption in government. President Nixon was in office at the time of this scandal and is often thought to be the most famous face in Americas conspiracy of wickedness in the government. The Watergate scandal had rocked everything our country thought we knew about the American Presidency because it had forfeited the common vision of the leader of the nation. Watergate had replaced the image of elegance and worldliness of the U.S. President with a scattered vision of corruption and extreme competitive measures that the country had never been a part of. Richard Nixon and his men had taken†¦show more content†¦The purpose of this break in was to â€Å"bug† the Democratic Offices in effort to aid Nixons attempt to win a second term6. The police on the scene had taken into custody: 40 rolls of undeveloped film, two ca meras, a radio device, listening devices that had phone listening capabilities long with being able to pick up conversations in the room, and â€Å"pen-size tear gas guns†7 Two reporters from the Washington post named Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward had taken an interest in this event and perhaps maybe even knew there was more to it. Two days after the scandal at the Democratic Headquarters, Bob Woodward called in a favor from whom he referred to as â€Å"an old friend†, who came to be known as â€Å"Deep Throat†123. He was later revealed to be a high ranking federal agent who met with the reporters in extreme caution and secrecy to reveal details of the investigation into the Watergate scandal. An important detail of Deep Throats significance is that he expressed the confidential tapings of White House conversations, to which only a few people at the time knew about existed. He also disclosed that there was 18  ½ minutes of the recordings that were missing, suggesting that the missing time was blank on purpose19. The identity of Deep Throat remained a mystery for over thirty years, when a man named Mark Felt revealed himself confirming that he had in fact retained high authority in the time of the ordeal21. The next few months in time were a veryShow MoreRelatedThe Political Disaster of Watergate Essay879 Words   |  4 PagesThe political disaster of Watergate in the early 1970s marked the first time a president resigned. Essentially, it began when a former Marine, Daniel Ellsberg, who no longer supported war in Vietnam, leaked an analysis of American involvement there to The New York Times, starting in 1971. President Richard Nixon, a very private man, demanded that these Pentagon Papers be kept secret in order to prevent the public from finding out exactly what was going on. The scandal that followed ruined Nixon andRead MoreFilm Analysis Of All The Presidents Men1270 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of All the President s Men All the President s Men, the 1976 film directed by Alan J. Pakula, is a detective thriller that portrays the story behind the Washington Post reporter s Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein s Pulitzer Prize winning relentless pursuit of the Watergate conspiracy. It initially started as a local burglary story and eventually led to the resignation of President Nixon. Over 40 years after Nixon s resignation, the Academy Award winning film was shown on July 14, 2017Read MoreThe Vietnam War Was The Longest Of The 20th Century845 Words   |  4 PagesFollowing that containment policy and it impacts on the war and the world in general, we come to the question that was it actually all about the change of balance of powers and get the US out of China or a new balance of powers against Russians? 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The film opens with actual footage of Nixons helicopter landing and then him addressing Congress. In the next clip, it is the evening of June 17, 1972 and we see flashlights and hear radio conversations of the burglars at the Watergate, which leads into the next morning and Woodwards assignment of a minor break-in at the Democratic National Headquarters. A few minutes later, Woodward is surprised to find that top defense lawyers are ready to defend the burglars, yet the burglarsRead MoreThe Boundary Conditions For A Case Study779 Words   |  4 Pagesbounding a problem is property fencing, which defines real estate extents (Merriam, 2009). Therefore, explaining the structure of a star may not require writing about the entire universe (Merriam, 2009). â€Å"A case study is an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system† (Merriam, 2009, p. 40). According to Merriam, (2009), â€Å"single most defining characteristic of case study research lies in delimiting t he object of study, the case† (p. 40). The presidential resignation of Richard Nixon onRead MorePresident Nixon : A Speech By President Of The President1395 Words   |  6 PagesStates, serving two terms between 1969 and 1974 (â€Å"Biography†, 2016). At the time of the speech, Nixon was facing loss of public support and impeachment over his attempts to conceal any illegal activities involving him and his administration in the Watergate Scandal (â€Å"Biography†, 2016). Rather than face impeachment, Nixon decided to resign and issued a public announcement of his resignation to the American people. Ultimately, he intended to leave the presidency by preserving his reputation as much asRead MoreSummary Of Forrest Gump And Shindlers List1124 Words   |  5 Pagesconcert dancing. Forrest ended up with a football scholarship and excelled on the college team at the University of Alabama. He not only met John F. Kennedy, but he also met Richard Nixon. We also learned that the naà ¯ve Gump also exposed the Watergate scandal forcing Nixon to resign his post as US President. Gump joins the US Army and ends up fighting in Vietnam where he saves several of his platoon and receives the Medal of Honor. Forrest somehow manages to achieve many lofty goals. He becomesRead MoreThe Foreign Corrupt Practices Act1320 Words   |  6 Pagesstudying relevant cases. Finally, this paper will offer solutions in order to solve the current problems related to â€Å"instrumentality† interpretation and draw the conclusion. For the purpose of narrowing the focus of this paper, the discussion and analysis will be mainly based on the anti-bribery provisions of FCPA regulating the issuers. II. Overview of FCPA A. Triggering Events of Enacting FCPA Back to 1970s, there were two triggering events raising Congress’s awareness of severity of the corruptionRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem Ragged Old Flag 1081 Words   |  5 Pagesof this analysis is to show how patriotism spans generations, but also why a song such as, â€Å"Ragged Old Flag† is an important part of patriotism in the United States of America. To begin, America has been through hell, but she always comes back. â€Å"Ragged Old Flag† was Cash’s response to the nationwide frustration brought on by the Vietnam War and Watergate Scandal. Johnny wanted to write a song that would make people feel patriotic and stand together during the Vietnam War and Watergate Scandal.

Emergent Literacy Free Essays

Addressing Emergent Literacy Skills in English-Language Learners Children who are learning English as a second language and live in homes where languages other than English are spoken are known as English-language learners (ELLs). Therefore, it is imperative that preschool personnel be trained to support the emergent literacy skills that prepare preschoolers to enter kindergarten ready to learn to read (Garcia Gonzalez, 2006). Emergent literacy skills are believed to develop during preschool years for most children, when they are in the process of becoming literate. We will write a custom essay sample on Emergent Literacy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The National Early Literacy Panel (2004) identified alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, writing/writing name, oral language skills, and concepts about print in preschool children as predictors of later reading and writing success in elementary school children. To achieve success, ELLs must be in environments in which – †¢ The first language and literacy are not only valued, but enriched in a planned and systematic manner. †¢ Instruction in English as a second language (ESL) is targeted to the child’s English-language developmental level while also being challenging. Teachers are knowledgeable about the normal processes of ESL development and literacy development in bilinguals. †¢ The program has a strong home-school connection that provides parent training and views parents as resources. Emergent Literacy Skills are organized into four domains: Print-Knowledge Print knowledge refers to a child’s growing understanding of the relationship bet ween the form and purpose of print (e. g. , Adams, 1990; Print knowledge has been associated with reading ability in English as a second language in ELLs (Klingner, Artiles, Barletta, 2006). Exposure to different print in different languages helps the child connect writing to his or her native language and culture and also raises the awareness of the symbolic and arbitrary nature of written language. Phonological-Awareness Phonological awareness is the understanding that oral language can be broken up into individual words, words into syllables, and syllables into individual sounds, or phonemes (Bradley Bryant, 1983. ELLs with strong phonological awareness skills in English demonstrated a higher potential for reading achievement in later years (e. g. , Genesee, et al. , 2005). Writing Emergent Writing is considered a child’s first experience with writing. Children’s early experiences in experimenting with different forms of writing support later reading and writing success. Oral-Language Oral language provides the building blocks for literacy. Children who do not develop these core language skills lack some of the most fundamental skills essential for reading (Catts, Fey, Zhang, Tomblin, 1999; They must develop these skills in a language they do not speak while still acquiring emergent literacy skills and oral language skills in their native language. Therefore, one of the most critical emergent literacy skills for ELLs to develop is oral language in the native and second languages. Strong native language skills predict oral language, reading, and writing skills in the second language (e. g. , August, Carlo, Dressler, Snow, 2005; Carlo et al. 2004). Strategies for Improvement Improving emergent literacy in preschool ELLs requires the use of planned instruction or activities that address the prerequisite skills in the two languages, develop strong oral language skills, and connect home with school. Inclusion of bilingual print awareness and writing activities in preschool also will allow ELLs to develop skills in both lan guages and to increase awareness of different writing systems. ELLs also need to build language proficiency in order to connect phonemic awareness, writing, and letter knowledge to language that they understand. Oral Language Skills To improve oral-language skills and facilitate emergent literacy skill development, ELLs need to build vocabulary, oral language comprehension, and production. This context presents a problem for ELLs because they often do not continue to develop their native language unless those skills are stimulated in their home environment and used for instruction in school (Barnett, Yarosz, Thomas, Jung, Blanco, 2007). ELLs entering preschool require language-rich environments that focus on overall language development. If the school focuses on English acquisition of colors and shapes, the child is missing critical development of literate language like stories and vocabulary in the native language and may not have strong foundations for second language acquisition. To build vocabulary skills, explicit and implicit instruction is necessary (Schwanenflugel et al. , 2004). Books build not only vocabulary but also text structure knowledge and background that prepare children for academic success. Dialogic reading can also be used to help ELLs build abstract language, especially in the native language, and to acquire the second language. It is important to provide parents with training to help them understand the role of native language in overall academic, language, and literacy development, for cultural identity, and in English acquisition. Building language and emergent literacy in ELLs requires a planned and systematic approach to address the native and second languages and to provide parents with needed resources and support. Systematic and planned bilingual language and literacy instruction promotes growth in the two languages and does not impede or slow English-language acquisition. How to cite Emergent Literacy, Papers

Madame Bovary Analysis Essay Example For Students

Madame Bovary Analysis Essay Madame BovaryIn Gustave Flauberts Madame Bovary, Emma Bovary is a victim of her own foolish disposition, and fueled by her need for change. Emmas nonstop waiting for excitement to enter into her life and her romantic nature eventually lead her to a much more realistic ending than in her romantic illusions. All of these things, with the addition of her constant wavering of one extreme to another, contribute to her suicide in the end. Throughout the story, Emmas foolishness and mood fluctuations lead to the eventual breakdown of her stability in life. In the beginning of the story, Emma has a desire to change around the house. A popular view on this aspect is that Emma experiences a stroke of individuality. I think the action is actually the first taste the reader gets of her incessant need for change. With every change that Emma makes, she tries to find the happiness she desires so much. An example of Emmas fluctuation of moods is after Leons departure. Once he left, to deem herself from the lack of love toward her husband, Emma transformed into the model wife. She would go from constantly thinking about another man, to another woman that no one would even dare think about accusing of considering adultery. I think that in her variability of moods, Emma is simply lost in her desire. The contrast between her romantic illusions and the realities of society create a condition in which she has no control over her emotions. Regardless of Emmas search for eternal passion, the dullness of her thoughts and inability to move past this drea m prevent her from developing into a round character. Flaubert accentuates this point by displaying Emmas romantic struggles with Charles, Leon, and Rodolphe. Through this, Emma ultimately creates a scornful caution against living her life through a novel. While in her physical state during pregnancy in which she was filling out over her uncorseted hips (Flaubert 62), Emma creates a contrast to the flatness of her affection for her baby which was perhaps impaired from the start (Flaubert 63). This is another example of Emmas imprudence, in that she particularly wanted a boy, because she thought that with it would come along new and exciting experiences and challenges. Upon the childs arrival and realization of the female gender, she quickly lost all interest in the child. This part of the novel in particular bothers me. Purely based on the fact that Emma desires to live in her romantic fantasy world, she cannot accept the reality of what occurs in real life. A woman who can simply l ose all interest in her child based on gender has serious emotional problems, and Emma is the case in point. Though Emmas inability to interpret the emotional gravity of new life and the potential for new love suggests a deficit in her reading of life, Flaubert entails that Emma has a natural disability in appropriate expression. A person would think that such a suggestion would create sympathy for Emma. However, when she is aspiring to be the mistress of all the novels, the heroine of all the dramas, the vague she of all volumes of verse (Flaubert 192), I do not think that sympathy is deserved.When Emma decided to go see the priest at the church in search of some spiritual guidance, another instance of her gullibility is expressed. Upon arriving, the priest does not seem to respect her pious needs, and quickly assumes that all she needs is a cup of tea and sends her on her way. As Emma returned home, her daughter acted as if to comfort Emma. In spite of this, Emma simply declines while pushing her away and scolding the child to keep her distance. Apparently unaware of the strength she appl ies, Emma pushes her daughter so hard that the girl falls and injures her head upon impact. In reaction, Emma cries and screams worriedly for the girl. This response appears a little off base, seeming as though she actually cared for the child, and Emma acts as if the child did it herself. This instance, in addition to the way she deals with her husband, shows how unstable Emmas emotions are and

Innovation free essay sample

A novel idea is not a creative idea unless it is valuable or it implies positive evaluation. Also, according to dt ogilvie (1998), imagination, which involves the generation of ideas not previously available as well as the generation of different ways of seeing events, is important to achieve creative actions. To combine this variety of definitions, we can say that creativity involves the generation of new ideas or the recombination of known elements into something new, providing valuable solutions to a problem. It also involves motivation and emotion. Creativity â€Å"is a fundamental feature of human intelligence in general. It is grounded in everyday capacities such as the association of ideas, reminding, perception, analogical thinking, searching a structured problem-space, and reflecting self-criticism. It involves not only a cognitive dimension (the generation of new ideas) but also motivation and emotion, and is closely linked to cultural context and personality factors. † (Boden 1998). According to Boden (1998), there are three main types of creativity, involving different ways of generating the novel ideas: a) The â€Å"combinational† creativity that involves new combinations of familiar ideas. We will write a custom essay sample on Innovation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page b) The â€Å"exploratory† creativity that involves the generation of new ideas by the exploration of structured concepts. c) The â€Å"transformational† creativity that involves the transformation of some dimension of the structure, so that new structures can be generated. Creative thinking in a disciplined manner can play a real role in innovation. Creativity and innovation are normally complementary activities, since creativity generates the basis of innovation, which, in its development, raises difficulties that must be solved once again, with creativity†¦It is not possible to conceive innovation without creative ideas, as these are the starting point. † (European Commission 1998). Innovation results when creativity occurs within the right organisational culture. The right organisational culture is one that provides through creativity processes (creative techniques) the possibilities for the development of personal and group creativity skills. We can define creativity IMT as the establishment of skills by implementing creativity generation techniques. 1. 2 Objectives of Creativity Main objectives of a creative thinking process is to think beyond existing boundaries, to awake curiosity, to break away from rational, conventional ideas and formalised procedures, to rely on the imagination, the divergent, the random and to consider multiple solutions and alternatives (Candy 1997, Schlange and Juttner 1997). INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 3 The result of the creative thinking process is especially important for businesses. Managers and managerial decisions and actions, confronted with fast-changing and ambiguous environments in business, need to develop creative solutions and creative action-based strategies to solve problems, as they allow to increase understanding of problematic situations, to find multiple problems, to produce new combinations, to generate multiple solutions that are different from the past, to consider possible alternatives in various situations that could occur in the future and â€Å"to expand the opportunity horizon and competence base of firms† (dt ogilvie 1998). . 3 Description / structure of the methodology / alternative solutions Creativity is not an innate quality of only a few selected people. Creativity is present in everyone. It can be learned, practised and developed by the use of proven techniques which, enhancing and stimulating the creative abilities, ideas and creative results, help people to move out of their normal problem-solving mode, to enable them to co nsider a wide range of alternatives and to improve productivity and quality of work. Creativity is thus constructed as a learned ability that enables us to define new relationships between concepts or events, which seemed apparently unconnected before, and which results in a new entity of knowledge† (European Commission 1998). Knowledge and information are the basis for creativity. The scientific research is recently oriented towards the development of creativity as an educational process. Many studies show that creative abilities can be developed by the implementation of creativity techniques (see Mansfield, Busse and Krepelka 1978, Parnes and Brunelle 1967, Rose and Lin 1984, Taylor 1972). Concrete creativity supporting techniques, including also computer-based support tools (artificial intelligence models, computer software idea processors, information systems, etc. ), are developed to promote and generate creativity, to break fixed ideas, to stimulate imagination, as well as to define the conditions in which creativity takes place (the creative environment or climate). Using such techniques, a company aims to â€Å"incorporate the employees’ potential of creativity into the process of performance creation† (Bullinger 1999). There are numerous creative techniques, which are also classified in many ways (Higgins 1994). In general, a certain type of question or a certain area of application (such as marketing, product or service development, strategic and decision planning, design, quality management, etc. ) often calls for a certain type or a certain group of creativity techniques. The description of some well-known and basic techniques and their implementation procedure is presented in session 3. A classification for these techniques can be made between analytical techniques and intuitive techniques. Analytical techniques follow a linear pattern of thought or sequence of steps, such as the â€Å"5 Ws and H† technique (it asks the questions who, what, when, where, why, and how) and have better application for very specific, analytical questions (Higgins 1999). They stimulate different ways of organising known information and help approach problems from new angles (Miller 1987). Intuitive techniques are less structured techniques. They tend to skip steps in a sequence and tend to provide a whole answer all at once, such as the â€Å"wishful thinking† technique (based on ideal possibilities and solutions), and they are more appropriate for ill-defined questions (Higgins 1999). INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 4 Another classification can be made between techniques that are more appropriate to generate creativity in individuals, and techniques, which generate creativity in groups undertaken within work groups. Improving personal creativity for individuals involves enhancing the individual’s use of intuition and reducing mental blocks creativity, such as fear of failure. At the group level it requires team building and other efforts to enhance the use of group dynamics to achieve creativity and innovation† (Higgins 1996). However, this classification is not rigorous, since many group idea generation techniques can also be used by individuals. On the other hand, the individual and th e group are two main agents that always interact in the process of creativity in business and industrial innovation. Creativity is an attribute of the individual, though generally it can only be developed efficiently when it is tackled within a group of team. For this reason, most creative techniques are proposed and undertaken within the framework of specific work groups, within companies or other organisations† (European Commission 1998). A third classification might be between creative techniques that rely upon divergent thinking and techniques that rely upon convergent thinking. Divergent thinking is the generation and the free flow of ideas and it demands considerable discipline, which is aided by the introduction of rigorous techniques forcing divergence toward many alternatives. Convergent thinking, on the contrast, demands techniques of filtering and focus to identify the ideas that have a truly innovative value, to converge on an acceptable solution (Hall 1996). Divergent and convergent thinking are complementary phases of a procedure, since divergence helps forcing towards many alternatives and possible options before convergence on an appropriate solution. Fundamental concepts for all creative techniques are: †¢ The suspension of premature judgement and the lack of filtering of ideas. †¢ Use the intermediate impossible. †¢ Create analogies and metaphors, through symbols, etc. , by finding similarities between the situation, which we wish to understand and another situation, which we already understand. †¢ Build imaginative and ideal situations (invent the ideal vision). †¢ Find ways to make the ideal vision happen. †¢ Relate things or ideas which were previously unrelated. †¢ Generate multiple solutions to a problem. Main points to increase or encourage creativity in a company are: †¢ to be happy, to have fun †¢ keep channels of communication open †¢ trust, failure accepted †¢ contacts with external sources of information †¢ independence, initiatives taken †¢ support participatory decision-making and employees’ contribution †¢ experiment with new ideas 1. 4 Expected results / benefits Creativity, through the generation of ideas with value, is needed in order to solve concrete problems, ease the adaptation to change, optimise the performance of the organisation and best practice manufacturing, and change the attitude of the staff of the INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 5 organisation. Creative thought processes are also important at all stages in the RD process. Some expected results of the creativity process are: †¢ innovation through new product and process ideas †¢ continuous improvement of products or services †¢ productivity increase †¢ efficiency †¢ rapidity †¢ flexibility †¢ quality of products or services †¢ high performance 1. 5 Characteristics of providers The implementation of creative techniques within work groups, requires the assistance and advise of external consultants. One or two consultants, experts in creative techniques, is normally enough to undertake the implementation process in a company. His/hers job normally consists of presenting the different techniques and their application method, defining the problem to be studied for the participants, initiating and clarifying the rules of the technique, gathering the necessary data and information to approach the problem, stimulating the generation of ideas of participants, and evaluating the ideas before proceeding to put them in practice. Training of management staff by experts may also be very useful. Management staff must be trained to stimulate creativity in employees, to provide motivation, to facilitate a creative climate and to encourage the use of creative techniques. Managers can also be trained to implement creative techniques by themselves. 2 APPLICATION Creativity processes are used regularly by many private and public sector organisations of all sorts in manufacturing, services, banking, or construction companies. Big firms such as Xerox, ATT, Frito-Lay, as well as car manufacturing firms, software development firms, railroad pharmaceutical firms etc. , use creativity techniques to increase efficiency and quality, especially in their research, strategic planning and marketing departments. Small firms and innovative RD organisations, such as biotechnology companies (Arlington 1997), are also becoming to implement creative techniques in order to solve problems and to improve the use of skills, techniques and processes. Creativity techniques may be applied in almost any functional area of the company: strategic planning, corporate business strategy, product development, improvement of services, functional strategy, finance, human resources, marketing, management of collection of information, product design, software design, quality management, etc. 2. 1 Where Creativity development has been applied INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 6 Nearly all innovation management techniques that can be applied in companies (BPR, benchmarking, TQM, MRP II, employee involvement, marketing of innovation, etc. require also the implementation of creativity techniques. For example, in the Innovation Programme of DG XII of European Commission, besides other innovation management techniques, creativity techniques have been applied in the following IMT projects (see European Commission 1998): -INVENT (Pro. 006) Implementation of a Method for Targeted Economic-Oriented Research in SME Invention Management. IMPA CQT (Pro. 008) PARTNERS (Pro 010) Promotion of Innovation Management Techniques in the field of Sub-Contracting. IDEAS (PRO 017 Integrated Product Development Expertise Applied to SMEs. PRIISME (Pro 029) Promoting of IMTs in ISRAELI SMEs. Programme to Create New Activities in SMEs (Pro 045). MARKPRO (Pro 050) Implementation of Market Oriented Product Innovation in Danish SMEs 2. 2 Types of firms / organisations concerned Creativity techniques can be implemented by all firms and public organisations that confront with problem solving and focus on innovation in processes, products or services. In case where the implementation of creative techniques is focused on the support of personal creativity, such as to support individual designers work for new product development, or to support individual scientists work in the laboratory, very small firms or a person can implement creative techniques for individuals. In case where the company focus is to increase group creativity and to create environments where a collaborating team work creatively together, the firm must have at least 20 employees, including 3 members as management staff. 2. 3 Implementation cost The application of creativity techniques is a continuum process. Sessions of creativity within work groups normally take place at company facilities during normal hours and working conditions. The implementation of a creative technique includes the following costs: †¢ The fee of an external consultant for 4-7 days work for undertaking a session of creativity (preparation, application, evaluation). †¢ The cost of software packages developed for personal computers or workstations (if necessary). Hardware and equipment must permit to deal with network communications. Training cost (2-4 days) (if necessary). Cost: from 3000 to 7000 Euro. 2. 4 Conditions for implementation Concerning the implementation of creative techniques, some of them are easy to apply, while others need some infrastructure, experts, work teams, training, collection of INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 7 information, resources, etc. In this case, the assistance of an external consultant is required . Besides the support of external consultants, the company itself must encourage creative environment. This implies the participation of all workers in the concerns of the company, and an open and flexible attitude on the part of management. According to Higgins (1999) factors to encouraging the creative work climate are: †¢ A secure environment with minimal administrative interference. †¢ An organisational culture that makes it attractive and easy for people to discover and solve problems. †¢ Rewards for employee performance and enhancement of intrinsic motivation. †¢ Managerial willingness to take risks for creativity and innovation, as well as an open and flexible attitude on the part of management. Providing people with formal and informal training to enhance creativity. Important conditions for implementation of creative techniques within work groups in a company are also the existence of well-trained human resources, a clear strategic definition of the company and to focus on the core competencies of the company (European Commission 1998). For solving complex problems requiring input by many areas, i. e. marketing, engineering, design, the company would preferably be one employing multidisciplinary teams. 3 IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURE As mentioned before, there is numerous creativity supporting techniques. The description, in an illustrative manner, of some well-known creative techniques for problem solving will be presented here. See also Annex, Table 1, the use of some stimulus that can extend perspectives to approach a problem. Brainstorming This is one of the best known and most used in the business world group based creativity process for problem solving. It is a method of getting a large number of ideas from a group of people in a short time. It can be used for generating a large number of ideas or solutions for well-defined strategic or operational problems, such as for engineering design processes. It forms also a basic framework or constitutes the initial phase for the implementation of many other groups based on creative techniques. Brainstorming sessions take place in a group of 6-10 people. The presence of a leader is necessary to stimulate the generation of ideas, as well as a preparation phase to gather the necessary data and information to approach the problem. A recorder writes the problem statement and the idea generated by the group on a white board. Several guidelines for brainstorming are available, such as suspend judgement, free wheel, quantity, and crossfertilise. The whole process takes normally one hour and can be conducted through several stages. The session begins with stating the problem and calling for solutions by the leader. The following stages can be: restate the problem in the form of â€Å"How to†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , select a basic restatement and write it down as â€Å"In how many ways can we†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , warm-up session, brainstorming, and identify wildest idea. An evaluation method is additionally used for to identify the ideas that have a value for implementation. The four basic rules of brainstorming are: a) no criticism and no prior judgement of any idea, b) all ideas, INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 8 even the absurd, are welcome, c) quantity has value, the more ideas the better, if a large quantity of ideas is generated, then the idea pool very likely would contain high-quality ideas, d) sharing and combining ideas, and constructing ideas based on those developed by other members of the group for producing new ideas. See: Osborne (1963), Rawlinson (1981), Chen (1998), Higgins (1996), European Commission (1998). See also Annex, Table 2: Brainstorming phases. A special type of brainstorming tool is PMI in which the participants are directed to brainstorm the Plus points, then the Minus points and finally the Interesting points (De Bono 1992, 1993). Related to brainstorming, which is characterised by verbal communication, is also the hand-written communication as a brain-writing technique. The process is that ideas generated by individuals are written down on a piece of paper, and then exchanged and combined with those of the other individuals in the group. Written ideas are circulated and read by the other participants in the group each of whom, in turn, write down new ideas. A variation of this hand-written communication is the 6-3-5 method in which each of the 6 participants in the group generates and writes 3 ideas related to the problem on a piece of paper in 5 minutes. After 5 minutes, each participant passes the piece of paper to the person on the right, who reads it and adds 3 new ideas in 5 minutes. The process continues until each participant gets the original piece of paper back (European Commission 1998). Electronic brainstorming is also a hand-written communication technique, which employ computerised programs to achieve brainstorming. Story boarding It is a creativity technique for strategic and scenario planning based on brainstorming and used mainly by groups. It requires a leader, a secretary and takes place in a group of 8-12 people. The leader arranges the ideas generated by brainstorming in a logical order on a white board creating a story. This technique allows identify the interconnections of ideas and how all the pieces fit together. It can be used to identify issues, problems, solve a complex problem and determine ways to implement solutions. The story boarding process includes four phases: a) planning, b) ideas, c) organisation and d) communication. Each phase includes a creative session (it takes 45 minutes) and a critical session, in which participants critique their story board. †¢ The planning phase begins with the problem definition or the issue being examined the topic header. Purpose header, a miscellaneous column and other, normally 1012, headers (column titles) are laced and brainstormed in order to give Ideas and then items, which are listed under the headers (the purpose header is listed first). †¢ The second phase the ideas board, is to take one column from the planning board, which becomes the topic header and the items of that column become headers of new ideas. †¢ In the third phase the organisation board, participants identify who is responsible for implementing chosen solutions , what has to happen, and when. †¢ In the last phase the communication board, participants identify who must communicate with for all of the events identified in the organisation board to take place. Through the process, visual graphics to summarise or present relevant points are presented by the leader. These might be strategic models, places or things (Higgins 1996). INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 9 Lotus Blossom This technique can also be used in scenario planning and is very useful for forecasting strategic scenarios. It is designed for groups and is used to provide a more in-depth look at various solutions to problems. It begins with a central core idea surrounded by eight empty boxes or circles. Using brainstorming, eight additional ideas (solutions or issues) are written in these boxes. In the next step, each of these eight ideas becomes the core of another set of eight surrounding empty boxes, which are filled in by new ideas using brainstorming. The process continues until a satisfactory solution or a sufficient number of ideas have emerged (Higgins 1996). See Annex, Figure 1: Lotus blossom sample. Checklists This creative technique is used mainly for product improvement or modification. It involves applying a series of words, verbs, adjectives or phrases contained in checklists or tables to an existing product or service or its attributes. Osborn’s Checklist is the best known and includes the verbs: put to other uses, adapt, modify, magnify, minify, substitute, rearrange, reverse and combine. Each verb contains also an expanded definition in the form of questions. For example, the description of the verb substitute is: Who else instead? What else instead? Other ingredient? Other material? Other process? Other power? Other place? Other approach? Other tone of voice? (Osborn 1963). The method is to apply each of the verbs and its expanded description to a product or service. See Annex:, Table 3: Osborn’s checklist). Another checklist technique is Van Gundy’s PICL (product improvement checklist). Used in the same way as Osborn’s list, gives many options containing 792 words, both standard and unique, that can be applied to existing products or services, and 102 stimulation questions (Van Gundy 1988, 1993). Morphological Analysis This method is another product improvement technique, permitting the in-depth analysis of products or processes. It involves applying a set of words to an item another set of words. Normally, one set of words is verbs and the other set are attributes of the product. Another way is that one set of words would be components of the product (breaking the product down into its parts) and the other set of words would be alternative solutions. The method is to combine each word of one set with each word of the other set. These two sets of words result in a two-dimensional matrix. A three dimensional matrix can be created by adding a third list of factors. The difficulty of this technique is the large number of ideas deriving of the multiple combinations that can be made (Higgins 1996, European Commission 1998). Mapping Process The use of maps is particularly useful in strategic management thinking in organisations, helping to organise discontinuities, contradictions or differences, and bring pattern, order and sense to a confusing situation, acting as a spatial representation of a perspective. There are many forms of mapping, including computer-based tools to support mapping: †¢ Mind Mapping It is an individual brainstorming mapping technique designed by Tony Buzan. It begins with a central focal point, a problem, an object, a name or issue, written in INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 10 the centre of a piece of paper with a circle around it. Each major facet of the problem or the solution to the problem originating from the central idea is then brainstorming in order to generate new ideas. Each of those ideas are then written on lines drowned outward from the circle. The next step is to brainstorm those ideas in order to identify issues related to the problem, or solutions that are written on smaller lines that are drowned on the prime lines forming a branch. Additional perspectives such as implementation factors or further definition of the solutions could go on those lines. One branch may also be chosen in order to develop a whole new mind map based on that branch. When a mind map is completed, its possible interrelations and possible multiple appearances of issues, and its overall meaning in the context of the problem must be examined (Buzan 1983). †¢ Mapping for generate collective creativity The use of maps to support collective creativity is a more complicate process. It is necessary to introduce appropriate maps into a suitable type of organisation that would preferably be one employing multidisciplinary teams. It is also important that the participants find the maps useful for organising and planning their work. The mapping process usually involves three phases: 1st phase starts with a brainstorming exercise in order to initiate a discussion around the problem or the product. Normally, the participants are asked to mention all aspects they regard as relevant to the problem to be dealt with. During this process a large number of visual references are used to elicit the perspectives of the members with regard to the potential new concept. It is emphasised to the participants that the maps are intended to enrich the conversation, and should not be perceived as representations of the concept itself, but more as the semantic terrain or space, which covers all potential strategies. The knowledge elicited is discussed, and in about 2 hours is organised and structured by the participants into a map that intuitively understand. This map is the initial cognitive map, which describes all the problematic areas in brief outlines. In the 2nd phase of the process, which serves to expose the individual participants’ perspective both to themselves and to the other members of the group, the participants discuss the values that they associate with a very large range of objects and images. A number of these images are then selected that are considered to metaphorically represent potential aspects of the product strategy. In the 3rd phase, these images and appropriate annotations are arranged in a twodimensional space, positioning the images depending upon how the values of these objects relate to one another. In doing this, the group is mapping out a terrain constituted by the differences between the images, expressing the range of different product strategies open to the group (Fentem, Dumas McDonnell 1998). For creating maps, many software applications are available (see further down in computer-based creativity techniques). The Excursion Technique Is a very useful technique for forcing a group to have new thought patterns to formulate strategies. The process involves five steps (see Higgins 1996): In the 1st step the excursion the consultant asks participants to take an imaginary excursion to a physical location (a museum, a jungle, a city, another planet, etc. ), which INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 11 has nothing to do with the real problem. After the excursion each participant writes down 8-10 images, which he/she saw during the journey (things, people, places or items) in the 1st of 3 columns. In the 2nd step, the consultant asks participants to draw analogies or express relationships between what they saw on the excursion and the problem as defined, and to write them in the column 2 next to each of the items identified in the first column. In the 3rd step, participants are asked to determine what solutions to their problems are suggested by the analogies or the relationships in column 2, and write them in column 3 beside the items and analogies identified in the other columns. In the 4th step, participants share their xperiences from the excursion: what they saw, their analogies and their solutions. In the 5th step, as with brainstorming, participants may discuss on each other’s ideas. Eventually the leader helps the group come to a common solution or a set of solutions to the problem. Computer-based creativity techniques Computer-based supporting techniques to stimulate the human creative process have an immediate and pragmatic aim, which is the implementation of computational models (computer software) for generate and organise ideas for creative work. They are used more frequently in research planning, product design, knowledge acquisition, decisionmaking, motivation, etc. We can distinguish groups of computerised creativity techniques, such as AI models, Idea Processors systems and visualisation and graphical systems. AI (artificial intelligence) models of creativity AI deals with solving non-quantified, unstructured problems. Its task is about knowledge representation and reasoning and to built intelligent, rational, and autonomous agents. Current AI models of creativity involve different types and appropriate techniques of supporting the generation of new ideas. According to Margaret Boden (1998), in respect to the three types of creativity, there are also three main types of computer models that involve: a) The stimulation of the combination of ideas, mainly by using analogies in the sense that associated ideas shares some inherent conceptual structure. b) The exploration of structured concepts, so that novel and unexpected ideas result. It requires considerable domain-expertise and analytical power to define the conceptual space and to specify procedures that enable its potential to be explored. ) The transformation of a problem, so that new structures can be generated which could not have arisen before. New solutions to a problem can be created with transforming a problem into a new problem, solve the new problem and then adapting the solution back to the original problem. AI employs symbolic approaches for creative problem solving and includes stimulus such as heuristics, search, weak methods, knowledge representation and reasoning to fa cilitate problem structuring and idea generation. The focus of AI creativity techniques in the form of computerised programs, is to help users to take a fresh look at roblems by guiding what may be a user’s otherwise undisciplined intuition through a series of INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 12 problem-solving exercises, and to think in non-linear et non-logical ways. The main advantage of computerised, guided problem solving is that the programs prompt a user for ideas in a thorough manner. Recent programs of AI include also knowledge-based approaches, using large-scale databases and narrative systems (Chen 1998). AI researches have also developed efficient search algorithms for problem solving. Some AI programs of creativity are: The Copycat program that looks for analogies between alphabetic letter-strings (Hofstadter, FARG 1995, Mitchell 1993). The EURISKO program a transformational system with also an exploratory process that can be applied to a wide range of domains. The AARON program for exploring line drawing in particular styles and colouring (McCorduck 1991). The BACON program of exploratory AI-creativity designed to model scientific discovery (Langley, Simon, Bradshaw and Zytkow 1987). Idea Processors software Idea processors have a close relationship with artificial intelligence and use many artificial intelligence techniques. Idea processors are normally software packages developed for personal computers or workstations. They are used for idea generation and organisation in some specific stages of problem solving acting as knowledge-support systems (Chen 1998). In order to assist the human thinking, idea processors usually perform extensive search in large databases, knowledge bases, or text bases. For many idea processors the electronic brainstorming is the most important technique to generate ideas. The use of computer programs helps to de-structure and then to restructure thinking in a different way. The Idea Generator Plus program provide seven components to the user, that permit to go through a step-by-step problem analysis and solution finding process: examine similar situations, examine metaphors, examine other perspectives, focus on goals, reverse the goals, focus on the people involved, and make the most of the ideas (Nirenberg 1985). In another program, the IdeaFisher, using hypertext databases from Fisher Idea Systems Inc. , all entries in the database are cross-referenced by concept and association. It uses a giant cross-referenced text base of words and phrases representing concepts and images enhanced by a series of questions (see also spatial hypertext systems). The program also allows to generate new ideas based on combination of words by creating a list of people, animals, verbs, adjectives and phrases that are associated with the combination of two words that a user choose. Some other programs related to an idea processor are: The Ideatree system with an exploratory focus, linking laterally or hierarchically concepts that exist into the idea-boxes of the program. The Emergent Media Environment (EME), an interactive computer system that integrates facilities for supporting the generation, collection, organisation and presentation of ideas and advises about the divergence and convergence of the ideas. The GENI (GENerating Ideas) experimental system incorporates a variety of techniques to assist in making different types of connections: internal connections (between elements of the focal problem itself) and external connections (between the focal problem and external factors). INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 13 There are also many idea processors programmes available on the Internet (most of them are commercial products) including the following: http:/ideaprocessor. citi. doc. ca http:/www. maxthink. com http:/www. ozemail. com. au http:/www. inspiration. com http:/www. signet. com. sg/axon2000 Visualisation and graphical systems Computer support methods, such as visualisation of data and graphical techniques for marking up visual phenomena and expressing knowledge about data in rule form, are also available. Visualisation of data and graphical techniques are very important to support creativity. They involve working with visual data such as images, drawings, sketches, diagrams, charts, graphs, graphical objects, that are specific to the domain, and they take the form of expressing ideas and concepts through sketching, annotation and examining multiple or alternative views of the same data, all of which varies according to the domain of interest. There are many such systems giving various opportunities to the users. A visualisation system, the Inspiration (from Inspiration Inc. ) provides a blank canvas in which the user can quickly record and arrange ideas as they occur and allows a visual approach to organising thoughts. The system can also change the relationship between ideas and connect related ideas by dragging kinks between them to create a graphical map of the users thinking. Another visualisation system is Axon 200 used for creating complex flowcharts or concept diagrams and describes how different factors or events influence each other. It uses checklists and visual attributes such as colour, shape, size, scale position, depth, link and icon. It also creates relationship diagrams, which allow the user to represent multiple relationships between various visual objects on the screen (Chen 1998). Visualisation systems are also very important in design such as the Speech Knowledge Interface (SKI) system that support rapid graphical interaction with visual images, the Vehicle Packager Knowledge Support System (VPKSS) that aids designers at the conceptual stage of the design process (Candy 1997). Spatial representation tools In relation with visualisation systems, there are also computer-based tools, such as computer-based information and communication systems, for supporting representations and creating cognitive maps in two-dimensional spaces. Some representations use a specific notation, others use spatial proximity to indicate the relationship between objects (usually words relating to concepts) in the spaces, and others, used in marketing and design departments called â€Å"mood boards†, use collections of images as metaphors that reflect the quality aspects of the product strategy (Fentem, Dumas and Mcdonnell 1998). †¢ Kelly Repertory Grid technique is a knowledge elicitation tool used in the marketing, management and expert systems development. It analyses data using principal components analysis (PCA) software and produces a map by plotting the INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 14 first two components. The map produces a spatial positioning of text with respect to dimensions that are significant or correspond to the personal constructs that the participant member uses to categorise and evaluate the world (Kelly 1955). An Internet version of this tool is Webgrid. Available at http://www. cpsc. ucalgary. ca/ †¢ Spatial Information Systems These systems have been designed to support creativity by mapping objects (concepts, text objects, design requirements and parameters) into two-dimensional spaces, using various combinations of ‘knowledge processing’ and multivariate statistical analysis techniques. Users can also select an area of this space and to create a new space by reprocessing using principal components analysis (PCA) only the data associated with the objects lying within this subspace (Fentem, Dumas and Mcdonnell 1998). For example, one of these systems searches research papers for the frequency of certain keywords and uses a type of PCA to analyse the results of this search and represent these keywords and the papers within a common twodimensional space (Sugimoto, Hori, Ohsuga 1996). Another system named En Passant 2 stores researcher’s notes and triggers to recall and to reconsider. The users can browse their notes and view relations among them interactively (Aihara, Hori 1998). Spatial hypertext systems These systems have been designed for the â€Å"exploration of alternative structures for content, and applications in which the domain structure is not well understood at the outset, or changes during the course of a task†. In spatial hypertext, the links between nodes are conveyed implicitly by arranging the nodes in the space. â€Å"Nodes appear in different contexts through multiple spatial references to the same underling content† (Marshall and Shipman 1995). The users are presented with a window that acts as a work- space in which they organise their material. The nodes arranged in the space represent links to familiar objects such as documents, images, comments, and links to WWW hypertext pages, plus more unique structures known as ‘composites’ and ‘collections’. Marshall and Shipman’s VIKI spatial hypertext system, for example, was designed to support new product development, helping teams to make sense of the many diverse kinds of business-related material relevant to the new product, by assisting them in arranging it spatially. †¢ 4 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES (1) Aihara, K. , Hori, K. (1998), â€Å"Enhancing creativity through reorganising mental space concealed in a research notes stack†, Knowledge-Based Systems, No. 11, pp. 469-478. Arlington, S. (1997), â€Å"Accelerating drug discovery: creating the right environment†, Drug Discovery Today, Vol. 2, No. 12, pp. 547-553. Boden, M. A. (1998), â€Å"Creativity and artificial intelligence†, Artificial Intelligence, No. 103, pp. 347-356. Bullinger, H. J. (1999), â€Å"Turbulent times require creative thinking: new European concepts in production management†, Int. J. Production Economics, No. 0-81, pp. 9-27. Buzan, T. (1983) Use Both Sides of Your Brain, Dutton, New York. (2) (3) (4) (5) INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 15 (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) Candy, L. (1997), â€Å"Computers and creativity support: knowledge, visualisation and collaboration†, Knowledge-Based Systems, No. 10, pp. 3-13. Chen, Z. ( 1998), â€Å"Toward a better understanding of idea processors†, Information and Software Technology, No. 40, pp. 541-553. De Bono, E. (1992), Serious Creativity, Harper Collins, London. De Bono, E. (1993), De Bono’s Thinking Course, Facts and on File, New York. t ogilvie (1998), â€Å"Creative action as a dynamic strategy: using imagination to improve strategic solutions in unstable environments†, Journal of Business Research, No. 41, pp. 49-56. European Commission (1998), Innovation Management Techniques in Operation, European Commission, Luxembourg. Fentem, A. C. , Dumas, A. , McDonnell, J. (1998), Knowledge-Based Systems, No. 11, pp. 417-428. Hall, D. J. (1996), â€Å"The role of creativity within best practice manufacturing†, Technovation, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 115-121. Higgins, J. M. (1996), â€Å"Innovate or evaporate: creative techniques for strategists†, Long Range Planning, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 370-380. Higgins, J. M. (1994), 101 Creative Prob lem Solving Techniques: the Handbook of New Ideas for Business, The New Management Publishing Company, Florida. (16) Higgins, L. F. (1999), â€Å"Applying principles of creativity management to marketing research efforts in high-technology markets†, Industrial Marketing Management, No. 28, pp. 305-317. (17) Hofstadter, D. R. , FARG (1995), Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought, Basic Books, New York. (18) Kelly, G. A. (1955), The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Norton. (19) Langley, P. , Simon, H. A. , Bradshaw, G. L. and Zytkow, J. M. (1987), Scientific Discovery: Computational Explorations of the Creative Process, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. (20) McCorduck, P. (1991), Aaron’s Code, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA. (21) Mansfield, R. S. , Busse, T. V. and Krepelka, E. G. (1978), â€Å"The effectiveness of creative training† Review of Educational Research, Vol. 48, No 4, pp. 517-536. (22) Marshall, C. C. , Shipman, F. M. (1995), â€Å"Spatial hypertext: designing for change†, Communication of the ACM, Vol. 38, No. 8, pp. 88-97. (23) Miller, W. (1986), The Creative Edge, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. (24) Mitchell, M. 1993), Analogy-Making as Perception, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. (25) Newell, A. and Shaw, J. C. (1972), â€Å"The process of creative thinking†, in A. Newell and H. A. Simon (eds), Human Problem Solving, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 144-174. (26) Nirenberg, G. (1985), The Idea Generator, Experience in Software, Berkeley, CA. (2 7) Osborne, A. F. (1963), Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Thinking, 3rd ed. , Scribner, New York. (28) Parnes, S. J. and Brunelle, E. A. (1967), â€Å"The literature of creativity†, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 1, No 1, pp. 52-104. (29) Rose, L. H. and Lin, H. T. 1984), â€Å"A meta-analysis of long-term creativity training programs†, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 18, No 1, pp. 11-22. (30) Rawlinson, J. G. (1981) Creative Thinking and Brainstorming, Gower, UK. (31) Schlange, L. E. , and Juttner, U. (1997), â€Å"Helping managers to identify the key strategic issues†, Long Range Planning, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 777-786. INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 16 (32) Sugimoto, M. , Hori, K. , Ohsuga, S. (1996) â€Å"A system to visualise different viewpoints for supporting researches’ creativity†, Knowledge-Based Systems, No. 9, pp. 369-376. (33) Taylor, C. W. (1972), â€Å"Can organisations be creative, too? , in C. W. Taylor (ed. ), Climates for Creativity, Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 1-15. (34) Van Gundy, Jr. A. B. (1988), â€Å"Product improvement check list†, New Product Development Newsletter, New Jersay. (35) Van Gundy, A. B. Jr. (1993), Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, Chapman Hall, London. INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 17 Annexes Table 1: Stimulus to extend perspectives to approach a problem †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ List the elements that would bring on success. List the elements that we visualise as failure. Visualise success seen from the viewpoint of fifty years from now. Visualise success seen from the perspective of one hundred years ago. Look for impossible and desirable ideas. Create analogies with other things that have been successful. Imagine and write down ideas that are wild, illegal, crazy, etc. Insert the problem from its present scenario to a totally different scenario. Return from the fantasy scenario to the present scenario and try to associate the ideas generated in the fantasy scenario, with ideas that might apply to the real problem. Imagine what people we admire would say. Search for pairs of ideas that are apparently unconnected and that can be associated by a third. Imagine that everything exists and all we have to do is find it. Change the level on which the problem is approached. Source: European Commission, Innovation Management Techniques in Operation, European Commission, DG XIII, Luxembourg, 1998. Table 2: Brainstorming Phases Phase Orientation Preparation Warm-up Production of ideas Application Define the problem to be studied for the participants, clarify the rules of the game. Gather data and information necessary to approach the problem in an efficient manner. Carry -out the exercise: redefine a problem different from the one to be studied, experiment with it for a few minutes. Generate the maximum of ideas without prior judgement always ask â€Å"what else† quantity of ideas is quality no limits no criticise modify other’s ideas to produce new ones. Let the subconscious work. Gather the ideas generated analyse them work with logical thinking. Evaluate the ideas gathered and analysed develop and combine them before proceeding to put them in practice. Incubation Syntheses Evaluation Source: European Commission, Innovation Management Techniques in Operation, European Commission, DG XIII, Luxembourg, 1998. INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 18 Table 3: Osborn’s Checklist Question Put to other uses? Adapt? Description New ways to use as is? Other uses if modified? What else is like this? What other idea does this suggest? Does past offer parallel? What could I copy? Whom could I emulate? New twist? Change meaning, colour, motion, sound, odour, form, shape? Other changes? What to add? More time? Greater frequency? Stronger? Higher? Longer? Thicker? Extra value? Plus ingredient? Duplicate? Multiply? Exaggerate? What to subtract? Smaller? Condensed? Miniature? Lower? Shorter? Lighter? Omit? Streamline? Split up? Understate? Who else instead? What else instead? Other ingredient? Other Material? Other process? Other power? Other place? Other approach? Other tone of voice? Interchange components? Other pattern? Other layout? Other sequence? Transpose cause and effect? Change pace? Change schedule? Transpose positive and negative? How about opposites? Turn it backward? Turn it upside down? Reverse role? Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek? How about a blend, an alloy, an assortment, an ensemble? Combine units? Combine purposes? Combine appeals? Combine ideas? Modify? Magnify? Minify? Substitute? Rearrange? Reverse? Combine? Source: J. M. Higgins, â€Å"Innovate or evaporate: creative techniques for strategists†, Long Range Planning, Vol. 9, No 3, pp. 370-380, 1996 (reprinted from Alex Osborn, Applied Imagination, Charles Scribner’s Sons, Inc. , New York). Figure 1: Lotus blossom sample INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi CREATIVITY 19 1 by packaging 4 smaller / bigger 6 other material 2 by design A product differenti ation 7 change color 3 other uses 5 plus ingredient 8 change meaning A product differentiati on D lower cost F supply flexibility B product quality core idea: increase product consumption G product credibility C customer needs E service quality H competitors product strategies B C D E F G H INNOREGIO project Dr E. Sefertzi Innovation free essay sample Kotlers Innovation: Definition of innovation: Invention is not an innovation. Production innovation and business review innovation Making something better at a lower price Innovation is producing something new Invention is turning money into ideas and innovation is turning ideas into money. Innovation is catalyst for economic growth If you dont innovate the others wont stop to innovate hence it is necessary to keep innovating to succeed in todays market Innovation is introduction of a new process or product, it can occur anywhere either in government or any business. Creating a value for users, adding new way of doing things that people have not thought of before. Innovation creates an opportunity for Jobs. Bringing tools closer to people. Without innovation companies die. Developing research to retail. Innovation according to Jonathan Wareham: Improving something that already exists or introducing something that is new. Its not only about technology it is also about the organization. We will write a custom essay sample on Innovation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Turning traditional way of doing thing upside down Innovation is looking into the future. telephone Taking existing technologies and putting them together in a new combination ex: bicycle Redefining the social meaning around a piece of technology and understanding how they are actually used by a group of individuals. : v fitness. Why is innovation important: The process of commercialisation, policy makers and business analysts have realised that it is important that procees of commercialisation that is developing a sustainable and valid business plan around technology is Just as important as doing the basic research itself. What is European gap:

How To Write A Process Essay, with Topics and Outline

How To Write A Process Essay, with Topics and Outline Writing a Process Essay Topics Outline example How to start How to write body How to conclude A process essay is a form of writing which explains how to do something. Some of the most common process essays are recipes that demonstrate how food should be prepared. In this type of paper, the reader should be able to follow the sequence and successfully achieve what you are explaining. A process essay serves to: Explain how something is done. It gives a sequence which should be followed to achieve a particular goal. Explain how something works. It tells someone how something is done, for example explaining how to plant a garden. This article gives tips to help the student on how to write a process essay. Topic Choice Choosing the topic for a perfect writing requires a lot of thought. It should be something you regularly do, or have had an experience with it/ this is because the reader should achieve the same results as you after following all the steps. Be specific about your topic. Decide whether you want to tell your readers how to do something or explain them how something works. In case you are stuck in choosing a good process essay topics for your  task, there are some topics you can choose from: How to write a CV; How to grow a kitchen garden; How to cook a Spanish omelet; How to start a business; Preparing dinner for the in-laws; What to do when on a blind date; The process of saddling a horse; Steps to follow when operating a manual generator; The negotiation process; The grieving process; What to do to avoid procrastinating; Designing a tuxedo; Creating a design from scratch; The process of making a cocktail; How to tie a shoe; How to raise a healthy dog; How to file tax returns; The sedimentation process; How to organize a baby shower; How to pack light for the holidays. Common  Structure Keep in mind that there are different outlines for a process essay as every process is different. For this reason, thesis may differ from time to time and may not always look alike. The example below does not have a conclusion as it doesn’t need one. Outline example: How to cook homemade dry cured bacon Ingredients: Pork belly cut 500g of plain salt 100g of brown sugar Handful of juniper berries A spring of fresh rosemary Handful of black peppercorns Four bay leaves Zest of an orange Process: Grind the pepper and juniper berries Combine all the dry ingredients apart from the orange zest Zest the orange onto the belly Rub into the meat and refrigerate for 24 hours Remove from fridge and flip the belly over Bacon can be cured anything from 3 days to a week. The longer it stays the saltier it becomes and lasts longer When finished, take it out and wash all the cure mixture. Pat it dry. Rinse all over with white vinegar to prevent mold from growing Wrap in cotton and keep it in the fridge. Remember to change the cloth weekly Serve on a sandwich and takeout How to start  a process essay The first step to writing a good process essay introduction when making an article on a process is to figure out what you want to write about. Having some previous knowledge on the topic ensures you to become more competent and research widely. Have a global structure- this helps you have a coherent sentence and flow of ideas. The process essay draft tells you whether your content will be enough and lets you know if you have the know-how on how to go about the topic. As people often want to know the origin of something, the introduction for a process essay should begin by giving a little background information about what you are writing. It helps the reader develop a sense of purpose for the article. The first step in a perfect essay writing is to ensure you have all the facts right. Tell the reader what the process is about beforehand. Next, let the reader know what they need to have before beginning the process. Have a checklist of all items needed by listing them. Give the time frame approximated. This is to help the reader be aware how long the task will take and manage their time well. Tips on writing the body (length, paragraphs, and transitions) Have knowledge and understanding of your topic. Do not write a subjects which will have no content. Show that you understand all specifics of what you are doing. The reader does not want to try something, then end up with negative results. Ensure that all the facts are accurate. Write in a sequence. The purpose of the essay is to give guidelines to follow. Ensure that you mark the steps in order. Do not mislead the reader by skipping processes. Explain every step clearly. Remember, every step will vary from the previous one in that some will be lengthier than others. Do not forget to account for the purpose of every action. The aim of this is to make the reader feel that they are learning. Do not make assumptions that they know why. When writing the body, you can use a diagrammatic representation of how it should look like and diagrams make it easier to understand and for the reader to see that they are using it right. The diagrams should be broken down as the steps go. If there are different methods of doing something, mention that to the reader and advice on why you chose the particular process. Give the reader a reason to believe that your process is the best by listing some advantages. How to conclude a process essay Like all other essays, conclsuion  is underrated. After the reader has followed the steps as directed by you, the result should be as stated. Focus on the main result of the process. Explain what the main results should be. If possible, insert a picture of the final result and explain to the reader what they can do with it. This makes the reader feel motivated like they have completed a challenge. Make your steps easy to follow. The reader should understand the process without struggling. This is achieved by using very simple language and short sentences. In conclusion, you might explain to the reader some of the challenges they might experience which will make them not get the desired outcome. Finalizing the task The final step in writing the conclusion for a process essay is proofreading. Proofread to correct spelling, punctuations, and other grammatical errors. Ensure the steps are well sequenced and there is no missing step. Check out for plagiarism. This is especially for processes that have been copied from the internet. There is various process writing help sites for when you get confused which give different tips for an assignment  writing. Ensure that the process essay outlining followed as required. After following this tips in the handbook, your article is now ready for submission and presentation. Be prepared for criticism from your audience.

The best night jobs you can work during the graveyard shift

The best night jobs you can work during the graveyard shift Not everyone is meant for a 9-to-5 life. Or maybe you’re looking for a side hustle to supplement your 9-to-5 life. Or†¦maybe you’re a vampire. Whatever the case may be, we don’t judge- and we have some of the best jobs out there for night owls. 1. Air Traffic ControllerThis is not your quiet, sit-back-and-read kind of night job. It’s a â€Å"pound that espresso, because you need to be on it† night job, one for people who can be organized and diligent at any hour of the day or night. Air traffic controllers are responsible for coordinating aircraft takeoffs and landings at airports and communicate directly with pilots about runway conditions, weather, and other issues that can impact a safe takeoff or landing.To score this job, you’ll need a bachelor’s degree, and to complete a Federal Aviation Administration training program. Because this is a highly specialized job that requires amazing attention to detail and the ability to stay calm under any conditions, it’s a lucrative one as well: the median salary is $122,950 per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.2. Paramedic/EMTSpeaking of jobs that require calm under pressure, paramedics and EMTs are high on that list as well. This is a job that can have you on call during any shift of the day, responding to emergency calls and helping people in a variety of medical or emergency situations.To become a paramedic/EMT, you’ll need an associate’s degree and/or a certificate from a paramedic-specific allied health programs (some require up to 1,200 hours for certification). All states require candidates to pass a national exam before they can be certified and ready to hit the streets. The median salary is $32,670 per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.3. Rideshare Service DriverWhile there aren’t quite as many people out and about at midnight as, say, 6 p.m., plenty of people still need to get around at all hours of the night- coming home f rom bars, clubs, working late, etc. That’s often where rideshare drivers for companies like Uber and Lyft come in.To become a rideshare driver, you’ll need a valid driver’s license and a decent vehicle, plus you’ll need to pass a background check. Rideshare drivers can make up to $30 an hour, depending on location and tips.4. Casino DealerIf you’ve ever been in a casino, you might have noticed they’re not big on clocks- all the better to keep people gambling all night without realizing how late it is. That means casinos have staff on hand at all times of day or night, including the graveyard shifts. Dealers lead casino games (craps, blackjack, poker, and more) and handle money transactions on behalf of the casino. Not everyone lives near a casino, but if you do, it can be a good option for your night job.To become a casino dealer, you will need a high school diploma or equivalent, and may need to pass a background check (given that youâ€⠄¢ll be dealing with significant amounts of money). You should also have good math skills and attention to detail.5. Security GuardWhen you think of a night job, this might be the one that comes to mind. Security guards are responsible for making sure that premises are secure all night long, even if no one else is there. Depending on the company, it can be a very low-stress night job, letting you multitask with schoolwork, reading, or other activities that let you keep an eye on what’s going on.To become a security guard, you’ll need to have a high school diploma or equivalent, plus receive on-the-job training. You may also need to be trained in handling weapons, depending on the job.

European Environmental Agency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

European Environmental Agency - Essay Example We are a main information source for those involved in developing, adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policy, and also the general public" (p.1). The agency works towards reaching its primary goals in the following ways; "By providing a wide range of information and assessments of: The state of the environment and trends, Pressures on the environment and the driving forces behind them, Policies and their effectiveness and Outlooks/scenarios," (EEA, 1995-2008 p.1). Further promotion of the works of the group come with, "The European Environmental Agency (EEA) Scientific Committee has called for the suspension of the EU target of 10% biofuels use in transportation by 2020, and is recommending a new, comprehending scientific study on the environmental risks and benefits of biofuels," Further elaborating that, "The Scientific Committee assists the management board and executive director of the EEA by providing scientific advice and delivering professional opinions on any scientific matter in the areas of work undertaken by the Agency. The committee comprises 20 independent scientists from 15 EEA member countries, covering a variety of environmental fields," (Green Car Congress 2008, p.1). Each individual organization has a listing of primary responsibilities that are the primary focus for the organization, as well as the body of memb

How to Ride a Bike Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

How to Ride a Bike - Essay Example When I started to learn how to ride a bike, I found out that this was not an easy thing to do. What was most instrumental at keeping me away from learning how to ride a bike was the fact that I had seen my neighbor, who was of my age; fall off from the bike and going astray. This was such a bad moment for me that made me realize it could be something that is filled with wrath and destruction. I understood that it would be a gigantic act on my part to make both ends meet, and to finally learn how to ride a bike, which would essentially mean going out of my way and exploring new heights of unattainable proportions. My conditioning was therefore dependent on how the neighbor fell off from the bike and broke her leg. She was hospitalized for a couple of days where she received 10 stitches on her ankle. I felt aggrieved for her and completely disapproved of the kids who rode a bike. I had decided for my own self that this was something that I could not do. However, things changed as I was given confidence by my peers. The learning came about when I realized that I need to ride a bike to enjoy my life’s domains and to get in close company with my friends. I saw that all of them were riding their respective bikes and going from one place to another. So I resolved to learn it in order to move ahead with my life. This helped me create a sense of fear that I was about to undergo something which was unique, completely novel and new for me. The positive reinforcement was in the manner that I could have gained the positives out of the related equations while the negative reinforcement came about with the fear that I had to live with, during the initial stages of the learning process of riding a bike. The positives and negatives had to be balanced with one another so that I could attain success within the relevant ranks. The element of reward and that of the punishment came out in the open for me to understand and contemplate with the passage of time. I realized that if I learnt to ride a bike, it would be a reward in its own right and if I feared as to how I would have done it, it would be a punishment for my entire life because I would then have to remember and recall that I was not ready and willing to take a risk at an important stage in my life, which is indeed the childhood. The mere fact that I would have to be walking while my other friends are riding their bikes is such a feeling that would keep haunting me back and forth, and hence the reward under such realms would be to move one step ahead and learn the basics related with riding a bike. Therefore, reward and punishment are significant pointers for my entirety as I aim to discern how riding a bike would change my respective courses of action and allow me to get a straight on idea with the learning that I will acquire all this while. It is important that a child should know the rewards and punishments before he decides to learn something new, either on his own or through assistance of others.

History according to the Male Historian Essay Example for Free

History according to the Male Historian Essay Gender plays a very important role in the definition of history. Male historians are often presented as scientific thinkers. But the truth is that they merely perpetuate religious, ethnocentric or class-based versions of the past under the guise of neutrality. Female historians, on the other hand, are usually dismissed as propagators of amateur or irrelevant historical accounts. This observation most likely stemmed from their preference to study domains such as the lives of queens and other accomplished women, as well as manners, mores and everyday life. The accounts of Marco Polo and Ibn Khaldun are two evidences of history’s male-oriented nature. Their versions hail men and or patriarchal values as the agents of change in a given society. Such a pro-male stance is no longer surprising – history as a discipline has traditionally been regarded as a male preserve. Apart from the proliferation of male historians, focus is given on men and male-dominated spheres such as war, politics and industry. Inside the Middle Kingdom Marco Polo was a Christian Venetian merchant who traveled to and lived in Yuan China from 1271 to 1292. His accounts of his travels and experiences in China offered Europeans a firsthand view of Asian lands, turning him into one of the most famous Western medieval travelers. Furthermore, the works of Marco Polo aroused fascination with Asian trade. Traders and cartographers used these as a guide to be able to come up with their own routes to the East. Marco Polo, however, grossly misunderstood several aspects of life in Yuan China. For one, he conjured a very paternalistic image of Mongol ruler Kublai Khan. In addition, Marco Polo came up with a superficial description of the city of Kin-sai. His observations on the way of life of the city’s inhabitants clearly lacked further analysis, if not overly romanticized. The Grand Khan Marco Polo regarded Kublai Khan as a benevolent leader who brought prosperity and stability to Yuan China. The city of Kanbalu (present-day Beijing), for instance, possessed an opulence which â€Å"(was) greater than the mind can comprehend. † Its dwellers lived in handsome houses and stately buildings in the suburbs. The capital, meanwhile, was groaning with merchandise. At least a thousand pack-horses would go there everyday to unload raw silk, which would then be used to manufacture market items such as gold tissues and silk cloth. Kublai Khan lived even more luxuriously than his subjects in Kanbalu. Marco Polo wrote of an instance in which Khan threw a feast which lasted for three days. Merchants and other important personalities attended this banquet in the hopes of securing Khan’s favor for their respective endeavors. The guests were treated to a fare which included overflowing amounts of game animals, raisins, fish, fruits and Greek partridges, as well as wine and horse and camel milk. As they ate and drank, Khan’s acrobats entertained them with juggling acts, magic tricks and amazing feats of contortion. Kin-sai: A Cautionary Tale Marco Polo described Kin-sai as a â€Å"noble and magnificent city. † Its facilities – extensive streets and canals, spacious marketplaces, numerous bridges – rendered it a modern veneer for the standards of its time. Kin-sai’s markets sold a wide variety of goods, including meats, fruits, fishes, herbs, spices, drugs, trinkets and pearls. These bazaars are constantly full due to the city’s capacious stone warehouses, which are frequented by merchants from India and other countries. Marco Polo attributed Kin-sai’s prosperity to the rule of Khan. The former described the city’s previous ruler as a morally decadent individual who preferred hunting and orgies over administering to the needs of his people. His negligence of his duties reared its ugly head when the Khan was easily able to conquer Kin-sai. Marco Polo then concluded that Khan brought peace and stability to Kin-sai by controlling the licentiousness of its citizenry. Behind the Myth. What Marco Polo did not know was that the Chinese people resented the existence of the Yuan Dynasty primarily because of its Mongolian origin. Furthermore, the Yuan Dynasty marginalized the Han Chinese in the latter’s own country. Only Mongols and other foreigners were allowed to assume government positions. Neither was the Han Chinese permitted to engage in external trade and or learn other languages. While Marco Polo’s account of Kin-sai was merely a romantic tableau, its realistic descriptions of Yuan China can be interpreted in two ways. The tragic end of the city’s former ruler is a possible warning against excessive indulgence in worldly pleasures. It must be noted that during Marco Polo’s time, the nobles of the West were notorious for living lavish lifestyles while the commoners starved. He is therefore warning Western monarchs that they will share the same fate with the former ruler of Kin-sai if they don’t mend their ways. Another probable construal is that Kin-sai is a reflection of what the West really intends to do with China. Marco Polo’s focus on the city’s courtesans and the promiscuous way of life of its former ruler can be a means of fetishizing the East. Portraying China as an exotic location can increase Western expeditions to the country both for trade and for converting more people to Christianity. But what Marco Polo probably did not understand was that in Kin-sai, the practice of polygamy was considered acceptable. In ancient societies, polygamy was used as a means of replenishing the population after it has been reduced by wars and other calamities. From the Desert to the Desert Ibn Khaldun was a North African statesman, scholar and historian who traveled to various parts of the Arab world. In his journeys, he was able to make observations on the geopolitical climate during his period. These observations eventually became the basis for his ideas in the fields of historiography, sociology and economics. The Muqaddimah was the compilation of these concepts. Although The Muqaddimah was actually a reflection on 14th-century Arab politics, it has striking parallelisms with modern-day Arab geopolitics. For one, self-reliance is seen as more desirable than the unity and conformity being espoused by an established dynasty. Furthermore, luxury and interaction with strangers (foreigners) are regarded as the causes of corruption. The strong emphasis of The Muqaddimah on independence which already borders on isolationism was probably intended to make it more appealing to male than female audiences. The Bedouins In The Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun began his discussion on human civilization by describing Bedouin life. He believed that the Bedouins are the models of strength and self-reliance, as they focus â€Å"only (in) the necessities of life and not (in) luxuries or anything, causing, or calling for, desires and pleasures. † Furthermore, the Bedouins live according to the principle of asabiya (â€Å"group feeling†). Asabiya refers to a higher form of unity – it espouses â€Å"the cohesive force of the group (which seeks) power through conquest. † The Dynasty Ibn Khaldun was quick to clarify that the dynasty was not without asabiya – royal authority cannot be established and function without the group (society). But he also pointed out that the asabiya being practiced by the dynasty was a weaker form of the principle. This was because most dynasties were based in the city – a venue of luxury products and a thriving intellectual life, as well as specialization and diversification of labor. For a dynasty to thrive in the city, the army must shoulder the expenses of the royal family. Doing so, in turn, means greater taxes from the commoners. Another detrimental effect of luxury is interaction with foreigners – people during Ibn Khaldun’s time were able to obtain luxury items only from foreign merchants. Interrelating with outsiders would result in the inhabitants of the city acquiring values that contrast sharply against asabiya. It would come to a point that succeeding generations would have already forgotten the Bedouin values of independence and resilience – values on which a dynasty is supposed to be based. When that time comes, the dynasty would start to break down. Behind the Myth. Ibn Khaldun overly romanticized the Bedouins. While it is true that the latter is strong and independent, it is because it has to acquire these traits in order to survive. The Bedouins are a nomadic tribe that roams the deserts of the Middle East. Given the scarcity of resources in the desert, they have to be hardy in order to last. These traits of the Bedouins, however, are not without negative effects. In order to compete with scarce resources, Bedouin tribes constantly wage war with one another. In addition, they observe the practice of burying female infants in the sand. Because females ultimately leave their families to get married, the Bedouins consider feeding and rearing them a waste of already scarce resources. In sharp contrast, inhabitants of the city do not have to worry as much when it comes to their daily sustenance. Thus, they have more time to pursue other endeavors, such as education, arts and the sciences. The influx of new ideas may have also prompted them to change social institutions and or policies that they consider to be obsolete and or inefficient. Indeed, The Muqaddimah shows the enduring conflict between the patriarchal values of conformity and permanence and change and modernity. Conclusion Historical accounts of male historians are scientific only in the sense that they relieve the past in terms of religious, ethnocentric or class-based ways of thinking. Consequently, they end up misrepresenting certain ideas and or romanticize concepts that are actually detrimental to society to begin with. Marco Polo, for instance, portrayed Kublai Khan as a ruler which brought peace and stability to China. But the truth was that the Yuan Dynasty was an imperialist rule – it expanded itself by invading China and marginalizing the Han Chinese. Ibn Khaldun, meanwhile, adhered strongly to the Bedouin values of hardiness and self-reliance. But these values could likewise promote conformity and absolutist thinking, which, in turn, could result in groups which view violence as the only way to attain their objectives. When female historians write about the lives of queens, manners and everyday life, it is not because they want to come up with irrelevant accounts of the past.Rather, they simply want to show how seemingly unimportant persons, events and or ideas are the ones that make a bigger impact on society as a whole. References Barnes and Noble. (2009). The Travels of Marco Polo: Forewords Introductions. Retrieved January 30, 2009, from http://search. barnesandnoble. com/The-Travels-of- Marco-Polo/Marco-Polo/e/9780760765890 Chowdhry, S. DinarStandard. (2006, October 4). Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of Management and Work – Excerpts from the Muqaddimah. Retrieved January 30, 2009, from http://dinarstandard. com/management/IbnKhaldun_Mgmt100206. htm Lach, D. F. (1994). Asia in the Making of Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. MNSU. edu. (n. d. ). Yuan Dynasty. Retrieved January 29, 2009, from http://www. mnsu. edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/yuan. html On Distance. (2006, October 16). The Desert and the City. Retrieved January 30, 2009, from http://woodeneyes. wordpress. com/category/ibn-khaldun/ Polo, M. (1997). The Travels of Marco Polo (Benjamin Colbert, Trans. ). Wordsworth: Wade UK. (n. d. ). Smith, B. G. (1998). The Gender of History: Men, Women and Historical Practice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

The sandinista Revolution Essay -- essays research papers

During the forty-three year Somoza dictatorship a revolution was proved inevitable. During the period of the Somoza regime many conflicts between the government and the people arose. Some of these conflicts were mainly with the National Guard, but in 1978 conflicts hit its climax. In 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, a salient newspaper editor and leader to the Somoza opposition was assassinated; it is believed that by one of Somoza’s business man. This mans death gave a deep feeling of commotion throughout the country, establishing a nation wide strike against the Somoza government. The National Guard responded to the attacks by assassinating many civilians and violating many others rights. On August 1978, a Sandinista Commando (headed by Eden Pastora) seized control of the national palace,...

Isaac Asimov Essay

Isaac Asimov, the pre-eminent popular-science writer of the day and for more than 40 years one of the best and best-known writers of science fiction, died yesterday at New York University Hospital. He was 72 years old and lived in Manhattan. He died of heart and kidney failure, said his brother, Stanley. Mr. Asimov was amazingly prolific, writing nearly 500 books on a wide range of subjects, from works for preschoolers to college textbooks. He was perhaps best known for his science fiction and was a pioneer in elevating the genre from pulp-magazine adventure to a more intellectual level that dealt with sociology, history, mathematics and science. But he also wrote mysteries, as well as critically acclaimed books about the Bible, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, limericks, humor, Shakespeare, Gilbert and Sullivan, ancient and modern history, and many other subjects. Mr. Asimov’s first book, â€Å"Pebble in the Sky† (Ballantine), a science-fiction novel, was published in 1950. His first 100 books took him 237 months, or almost 20 years, until October 1969, to write. His second 100, a milestone he reached in March 1979, took 113 months, or about 9 1/2 years — a rate of more than 10 books a year. His third 100 took only 69 months, until December 1984, or less than 6 years. â€Å"Writing is more fun than ever,† he said in a 1984 interview. â€Å"The longer I write, the easier it gets.† He once explained how he came to write â€Å"Asimov’s Guide to Shakespeare† (Crown). It began, he said, with a book called â€Å"Words of Science.† † ‘Science’ led to ‘Words on the Map,’ † he remarked, â€Å"which took me to ‘The Greeks,’ which led me to ‘The Roman Republic,’ ‘The Roman Empire,’ ‘The Egyptians,’ ‘The Near East,’ ‘The Dark Ages,’ ‘The Shaping of England’ and then ‘Words From History.’ It was an easy jump to ‘Words in Genesis,’ which brought on ‘Words From the Exodus.’ That led me to ‘Asimov’s Guide to the Old Testament,’ and then ‘The New Testament.’ So what was left except Shakespeare?† His usual routine was to awake at 6 A.M., sit down at the typewriter by 7:30 and work until 10 P.M. In â€Å"In Memory Yet Green,† the first volume of his autobiography, published in 1979, he explained how he became a compulsive writer. His Russian-born father owned a succession of candy stores in Brooklyn that were open from 6 A.M. to 1 A.M. seven days a week. Young Isaac got up at 6 o’clock every morning to deliver papers and rushed home from school to help out in the store every afternoon. If he was even a few minutes late, his father yelled at him for being a folyack, Yiddish for sluggard. Even more than 50 years later, he wrote: â€Å"It is a point of pride with me that though I have an alarm cloc k, I never set it, but get up at 6 A.M. anyway. I am still showing my father I’m not a folyack.† He Learns to Read, Then Teaches Sister Isaac Asimov was born Jan. 2, 1920, in the Soviet Union, near Smolensk, the son of Judah and Anna Rachel Berman Asimov. He was brought to the United States in 1923 and was naturalized in 1928. He taught himself to read before he was 5 years old, using the signs on his Brooklyn street. A couple of years later, with a little help from his father, he taught himself to read Yiddish. When he was 7, he taught his younger sister to read. He skipped several grades and received a high-school diploma when he was 15. After discovering science fiction on the magazine rack in his father’s store — and overcoming his father’s objections to fanciful subject matter — he tried writing science fiction himself and sold his first story when he was 18. The story, â€Å"Marooned Off Vesta,† ran in the October 1938 issue of Amazing Stories. Three years later, in 1941, he sold a story called â€Å"Nightfall† to Astounding Science Fiction, then the top magazine in the field. It was edited by John W. Campbell Jr., whose ability to find talented writers was largely responsible for what is considered the Golden Age of science fiction in the 1930’s and 40’s. Almost 30 years after â€Å"Nightfall† was published, the Science Fiction Writers of America voted it the best science-fiction short story ever written. Astounding Science paid a cent a word, Mr. Asimov once recalled. â€Å"So for a 12,000-word story I expected $120. I got a check for $150 and thought Mr. Campbell had made a mistake.† But when Mr. Asimov called to tell him, â€Å"he said the story had seemed so good to him he gave me a bonus of one-quarter cent a word.† Mr. Asimov graduated from Columbia University in 1939 with a bachelor of science degree, and earned an M.A. in 1941 and a Ph.D. in chemistry there in 1948. The next year, he accepted an offer from Boston University’s School of Medicine to teach biochemistry. â€Å"I didn’t feel impelled to tell them that I’d never had any biochemistry,† he recalled in a 1969 interview. â€Å"By 1951 I was writing a textbook on biochemistry, and I finally realized the only thing I really wanted to be was a writer.† He was made an associate professor of biochemistry in 1955 and a professor in 1979, although he stopped teaching in 1958 and only occasionally went back to the university to lecture. A Science Fiction Of Verve and Clarity Mr. Asimov’s science-fiction novels and stories won many awards: five Hugos, given by the fans, and three Nebula Awards, given by his fellow writers. His â€Å"Foundation Trilogy† (all published by Doubleday) — which takes place in a future galactic empire and consists of â€Å"Foundation† (1951), â€Å"Foundation and Empire† (1952) and â€Å"Second Founda tion† (1953) — was given a Hugo in 1966 as Best All-Time Science-Fiction Series. Among his nonfiction works, â€Å"Asimov’s New Guide to Science† is considered one of the best books about science for the layman. Reviewing â€Å"Foundation’s Edge† (Doubleday), a sequel to the trilogy and the first of Mr. Asimov’s books to make the New York Times best-seller list, the critic Gerald Jonas said in The New York Times Book Review in 1982: â€Å"He writes much better than he did 33 years ago — yet he has lost none of the verve he brought to this series when he and the galaxy were much younger. What more could one ask?† â€Å"Foundation’s Edge† won a Hugo in 1983 as the best science-fiction novel of the year. In recent years, Mr. Asimov wrote â€Å"Foundation and Earth† (1986) and â€Å"Prelude to Foundation† (1988). A final novel, â€Å"Forward the Foundation,† is to be published by Bantam Books later this year. Mr. Asimov himself made no great claims for his work. â€Å"I make no effor t to write poetically or in a high literary style,† he said in 1984. â€Å"I try only to write clearly and I have the very good fortune to think clearly so that the writing comes out as I think, in satisfactory shape.† â€Å"I never read Hemingway or Fitzgerald or Joyce or Kafka,† he once wrote. â€Å"To this day I am a stranger to 20th-century fiction and poetry, and I have no doubt that it shows in my writing.† No Typist or Agent, And No Airplanes He wrote his first drafts on his typewriter, and short articles and final drafts on a word processor, and he rewrote everything only once. â€Å"It’s not out of conceit,† he said. â€Å"But I have lots of stuff I’m committed to write and if I linger lovingly I won’t be able to write at all.† Not everything, however, fell into place easily. He once did a children’s book in a day, but the Shakespeare book took two years. The book he considered his favorite, â€Å"Murder at the A.B.A.† (1976), a mystery novel in which he himself was a character, took seven weeks; â€Å"The Gods Themselves† (1972), a science-fiction novel that won both the Hugo and the Nebula awards, took seven months. â€Å"I do all my own typing, my own research, answer my own mail,† Mr. Asimov once said. â€Å"I don’t even have a literary agent. This way there are no arguments, no instructions, no misunderstandings. I work every day. Sunday is my best day: no mail, no telephones. Writing is my only interest. Even speaking is an interruption.† Although he wrote about space travel through countless universes and light years, Mr. Asimov himself refused to fly. â€Å"Isaac says that he loves to fly into space and span the galaxies,† the editor Ben Bova once remarked. â€Å"But only in his imagination.† Among Mr. Asimov’s other well-known science-fiction works were â€Å"I, Robot† (1950), in which he invented his famous Three Laws of Robotics, which govern the relation of robots to their human masters: robots may not injure a human or, by inaction, allow a human to be harmed; robots must obey humans’ orders unless doing so conflicts with the fir st law; robots must protect their own existence unless doing so conflicts with the first two laws. Robot and galactic-empire themes eventually expanded and intertwined in 14 novels. Secret of Success: It’s All in the Genes He also wrote many nonfiction works and magazine articles on a wide range of subjects and was the editorial director of a magazine named after him — Isaac Asimov’s Science Fiction Magazine — for which he wrote the editorials in each issue. He received the James T. Grady Award of the American Chemical Society in 1965 and the American Association for the Advancement of Science-Westinghouse Science Writing Award in 1967. Recently Mr. Asimov said he had had a prostate operation and was cutting back on his writing. He suspended his monthly column in Fantasy and Science Fiction magazine, to which he had contributed some 400 columns and articles over 33 years. Writing 10 or more books a year was standard procedure for Mr. Asimov, and he continued his busy pace after a heart attack in 1977 and triple bypass surgery in 1983. â€Å"I have been fortunate to be born with a restless and efficient brain, with a capacity for clear thought and an ability to put that thought into words,† he once remarked. â€Å"None of this is to my credit. I am the beneficiary of a lucky break in the genetic sweepstakes.† Mr. Asimov once told an interviewer about sadly contemplating death and the end of conscious thought. But, he said, he cheered himself with the thought that â€Å"I don’t have to worry about that, because there isn’t an idea I’ve ever had that I haven’t put down on paper.†